Comparative Analysis of Oxygen Availability and Demand in Klojen and Kedungkandang Districts, Malang City, Using NDVI-Based Vegetation Assessment

Abstract

Urban areas face increasing ecological pressures due to growing population density, transportation, and land use conversion, which trigger environmental imbalances. This study aims to analyze the balance between oxygen availability and oxygen demand in Kedungkandang and Klojen Districts, Malang City, using the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) derived from Sentinel-2 imagery as the basis for estimating oxygen supply. The analysis covers the period from 2019 to 2024 and employs a quantitative spatial approach. Oxygen demand was calculated based on oxygen consumption from humans, motor vehicles, and livestock, while oxygen availability was estimated by converting NDVI values into biomass, carbon stock, and annual oxygen production from vegetation. This approach provides a comprehensive overview of the vegetative ecosystem’s capacity to support oxygen balance within urban environments. The results indicate that Kedungkandang District has higher oxygen availability compared to Klojen District due to its wider and more continuous vegetation cover. In contrast, Klojen District experiences an increasing oxygen deficit each year, driven by population growth and the dominance of built-up areas. This disparity underscores the existence of ecological imbalances among urban subregions in Malang City. If the oxygen balance is unmet, strategic expansion of urban green spaces, especially in high-deficit districts, is necessary to achieve sustainable urban environmental management.